{"id":1106,"date":"2011-05-15T16:55:05","date_gmt":"2011-05-15T20:55:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/engineering.jhu.edu\/magazine-archive\/?p=1106"},"modified":"2017-08-01T14:07:10","modified_gmt":"2017-08-01T18:07:10","slug":"engineering-surprising-places","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/engineering.jhu.edu\/magazine-archive\/2011\/05\/engineering-surprising-places\/","title":{"rendered":"Engineering in Surprising Places"},"content":{"rendered":"

Half a century ago, engineers were best known as the designers of bridges, dams, tall buildings, and those newfangled transistor radios. Since then they have been moving into a host of new fields. Meet three Whiting School faculty at the forefront.<\/em>
\nPhotography by Will Kirk
\n\"surprisingplaces1\"<\/a>
\nThe Reverse Engineer<\/strong><\/p>\n

Blindfolded, Ralph Etienne-Cummings steps forward, arm out, a single glove on his right hand. The glove has lights and tiny photosensor arrays on its fingertips. It looks like the one Tom Cruise wore in Minority Report. Now Etienne-Cummings reaches out to a sheet of dark blue paper hanging on the wall of his lab. As his luminous touch sweeps over it, the fingertip photosensors soak up the color, activating electromechanical transducers that throb softly against the skin on his forearm. He moves his hand to a sheet of bright red paper, and the throbs become higher-frequency, higher-amplitude buzzings-higher-amplitude meaning brighter, and higher-frequency meaning redder. “With just a little practice, your color recognitions become almost instantaneous,” says Etienne-Cummings.<\/p>\n

As director of the Whiting School’s Computational Sensory-Motor Systems Lab, Etienne-Cummings is effectively a reverse engineer of the sensory systems wrought by evolution. The goal of the seeing-eye glove project, for example, is to empower the unsighted to feel their way around their environments in real-world, fine-grained, color-blended detail. “We aim to develop it to the point that a blind person can use it to quickly learn the difference between, say, a box of Cheerios and a box of Frosted Flakes,” he says.<\/p>\n

Another set of ongoing projects for Etienne-Cummings aims to give prosthetic limbs much of the dexterity and sensitivity of real limbs. Some of this work has been funded as part of a recent high-profile Pentagon program at Johns Hopkins’ Applied Physics Laboratory, Revolutionizing Prosthetics, which produced an advanced artificial arm now awaiting FDA approval.<\/p>\n

Under the program, Etienne-Cummings and his students collaborated with biomedical engineering Professor Nitish Thakor to decode the finger-controlling motor signals normally transmitted down motor nerves in the arm. In an amputee, these motor nerves are severed at the point of amputation. The goal was to hook the severed nerve ends to electrodes, use filtering algorithms to pull the motor signals out of the nervous system “noise,” and then translate those signals into the appropriate servo-motor signals in a prosthetic hand or arm. Etienne-Cummings and his colleagues made plenty of progress-the new arm has a wide range of motions and grips-but they intend to keep pushing the technology forward. “We’d like eventually to get the prosthetic hand working more or less like a real hand, with the ability to dextrously manipulate objects,” Etienne-Cummings says.<\/p>\n

True dexterity requires sensory feedback, of course, and the development of that artificial sensory capability has been another major theme in his lab. The signals that would normally send appropriate pressure, texture, temperature, and pain information up the sensory nerves of the arm to the spine and brain no longer exist in a hand or arm amputee. Yet any prosthesis that fails to provide them is going to feel blunt and inanimate.<\/p>\n

The technology to produce pressure and temperature signals using miniature transducers in a prosthetic limb already exists. During and since the Pentagon program, Etienne-Cummings and his crew have been working on ways to translate those signals into codes the brain understands-so that the prosthetic arm starts to feel like a real arm.<\/p>\n

“We’re trying to understand in detail how this sensory perception works, not just at a neuro-scientific level but at an engineering level so that we can reproduce it,” says Steven Hsiao, a professor in the Krieger School’s Department of Neuroscience, and Etienne-Cummings’ collaborator on this project.<\/p>\n

Hsiao has implanted macaque monkeys with electrode arrays, in the area of the brain normally stimulated by pressure-sensitive nerves in the hand. He and his students have been measuring how these neurons normally fire when the monkeys’ hands are stimulated, while Etienne-Cummings and his crew have been working on the development of an electrical stimulator that can appropriately mimic these sensory inputs. “Ralph brings a sophisticated understanding of engineering design, as well as a good fundamental understanding of these neural processes,” says Hsiao. “Together we hope to be able to reproduce, artificially in these monkeys, the sensory feeling of a natural hand-and eventually translate that to the design of a prosthetic hand.”<\/p>\n

The artificial arm produced under the Pentagon project is certainly advanced, but Etienne-Cummings is already looking forward to the next generation of prosthetic tech. “For the Pentagon project the goal was to demonstrate some form of close-grip feeling but without really trying to tease out the detailed perceptual neuroscience behind it,” he says. “So there’s still a lot to be done, such as knowing exactly what the coding should be, where in the brain to put the signals, how to make sure that the electrodes are stable-and all those things we’re continuing to work on.”<\/p>\n

Cellular Mechanics<\/strong>
\nDid you ever see that 1966 movie Fantastic Voyage, in which a group of humans and their submarinelike craft are shrunk to micron size and injected into a comatose scientist? Wasn’t it cool how they cruised gently through his arterial system, in search of a deadly blood clot?<\/p>\n

Well, Konstantinos Konstantopoulos would like you to know that a person shrunk to the size of a cell and injected into a real artery would have … a somewhat different experience. That micro-miniature person could have only the most fleeting sense of extreme motion, at the scale equivalent of several thousand miles per hour, before being torn to bits by all the buffeting and jostling and general turbulence.<\/p>\n

Blood cells are mostly tough enough to take this punishment, but some other cell types that get carried on this screaming ride are not. And even when they do survive, says Konstantopoulos, “what happens to them in this environment is more than mere biochemistry.”<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

It is also cellular mechanics, a proper subject for-you guessed it-an engineer.<\/p>\n

Konstantopoulos, who chairs the Whiting School’s Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, is best known for his work on the mechanics of circulating tumor cells (CTCs), the seed cells that break off from primary tumors and form metastatic tumors elsewhere-cancer’s usual cause of death.<\/p>\n

After CTCs detach from the original tumor, they circulate through the blood and have to bind securely to blood vessel walls before migrating through those vessel walls into new organs. “Only a tiny fraction of CTCs make this journey successfully, in part because the stresses on them from fluid turbulence and immune cell receptors are so great,” Konstantopoulos says. These stresses, as well as the amazing gripping strength of the clawlike appendages with which CTCs can hook themselves to vessel-lining endothelial cells, are properties described by the fundamentals of engineering. “By understanding this fluid mechanical environment, we can start to think about ways of interfering with the process, thereby reducing the chance that a tumor will metastasize,” he says.<\/p>\n

Konstantopoulos’ lab, replete with vented workbenches and pipette-wielding grad students, looks very much like a biology lab. His research colleagues are often from the biomedical sciences. “Dr. Konstantopoulos applies the power of engineering, down to the single cell and even the single molecule level, to gain new insights that are meaningfully moving the field of cell-cell adhesion forward,” says frequent collaborator Ronald L. Schnaar, a professor in the departments of Pharmacology and Neuroscience at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine.<\/p>\n

Yet another focus of the Konstantopoulos lab is the cell type known as chondrocytes, which build and maintain the cartilage of joints. “With chondrocytes we’ve been able to show that the forces on cells can affect not only their adhesion and migration characteristics but also their internal signaling pathways,” Konstantopoulos says.<\/p>\n

When a weight lifter suddenly snatches up a 300-pound barbell, or a linebacker crashes headlong into a wide receiver, the cartilage in the knees and shoulders and elbows and hips and all the other shock-absorbing places in the skeleton are suddenly hit with large forces. Enough of these hits can cause osteoarthritis, a condition in which chondrocytes die off and cartilage starts to break down.<\/p>\n

Sudden compressions of joints create sudden flows of synovial fluid-the lubricant of joints-and those flows severely buffet chondrocytes on the cartilage surface. In a series of studies over the past six years, including one published last December in PLoS ONE, Konstantopoulos and his students have shown that fast flows of synovial fluid can cause cultured chondrocytes to exhibit a degenerative gene expression pattern very similar to that seen in osteoarthritis. “Even though this fluid-mechanical model is very simple, we can use it to do preliminary tests of possible therapeutic agents to combat osteoarthritis,” he says.<\/p>\n

It might seem odd to find engineers roaming so far onto biologists’ traditional turf. But Konstantopoulos points out that biological systems such as the joints and blood vessels represent “exquisite feats of mechanical engineering-just not at the scale at which we’re used to working.”<\/p>\n

Financial Structures That Won’t Fall Down<\/strong>
\n“Financial engineering” got such a bad rap during the economic crisis that some may know it only as a term of derision-as if “engineering” in a financial context were a self-evidently absurd and dangerous idea.<\/p>\n

But the truth is that there are financial engineers. Over the past two decades they’ve been part of one of the fastest growing disciplines in the engineering world, and they offer the same robust methodologies and social value provided by traditional types of engineers. “A structural engineer designs buildings to account for foreseeable loads, and in the same way a financial engineer designs instruments to account for foreseeable financial risks,” says Daniel Naiman, professor and chair of the Whiting School’s Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics (AMS)-home of Johns Hopkins’ financial engineers.<\/p>\n

“One of the positive outcomes of the financial crisis is that reliable financial engineering models have become more important than ever,” says Tim Leung, an AMS assistant professor. “There’s also a better appreciation of how these models should and shouldn’t be used.”<\/p>\n

Leung made his name in the field recently by helping companies, regulators, and ordinary workers gain a more sophisticated understanding of employee stock options (ESOs). Granting ESOs to employees, to give them a sense of a stake in their companies, has become very common-yet it’s a potentially thorny issue for corporate accountants and regulators. The liability an ESO represents on the books of the issuing company can’t be measured exactly because it depends on the vicissitudes of stock prices and the timing of employee cash-ins.<\/p>\n

Leung has shown that old ESO-valuation models are usually inaccurate, because they fail to take into account the heightened risk perceptions of ESO-holding employees. “Employees tend to exercise their options earlier than they should,” says Leung. “They tend to be risk averse, and so they prefer to lock in a small gain before the stock price declines, or before they lose their job-because in some cases they lose their ESOs if they’re fired or quit.”<\/p>\n

A new model developed by Leung and colleagues takes employee risk perceptions into account and is now commonly used by companies to satisfy accounting regulations. Leung also has shown recently, in the SIAM Journal on Control and Optimization, how employees can hedge some of this risk in the open market, making it easier for them to hold their ESOs for longer-potentially increasing the cost of the ESOs to companies but also increasing the period in which employees have a profit-sharing stake in their companies’ success.<\/p>\n

Another high-flying financial engineer at the Whiting School is PhD candidate Peter Lin, who won second runner-up in a Morgan Stanley market analysis and modeling competition last December.<\/p>\n

Lin’s competition entry was a new model to help investors hedge against changes in interest rates. “Traditional interest-rate models are often too specific, involving assumptions about investors’ risk preferences or market risk evaluations that aren’t firmly connected to the real world,” says Lin. “This new model is simpler because it accommodates real-world market information with fewer constraints.” Lin’s model not only gauges the risk of interest rate changes-a risk that is of supreme interest to bond-holding asset managers, especially managers of pension funds-but also outputs the appropriate price for derivatives that hedge against this risk.<\/p>\n

And speaking of Morgan Stanley: Graduating electrical or mechanical engineers sometimes find themselves questioning their career choices and wishing that they could follow their money-minded classmates to high-paying Master-of-the-Universe jobs on Wall Street. Financial engineers don’t have this problem because the financial industry is where they are trained to work. Lin, for example, expects to head to Wall Street soon to work as a quantitative modeler, or “quant.” Leung, before doing his PhD, spent a year in Manhattan as a consultant to banks. “The interest rates that your local bank charges for, say, home mortgages are set by models like the ones I designed while I was there,” he says. “I’m hoping that my impact on the field will be bigger if I’m here in academia, but it’s nice to know that if I want to go back, I probably can.”<\/p>\n

“Over the last 20 years, the growth in the industry’s demand for financial engineers has been explosive,” says David Audley, PhD ’72, a former hedge funder who still consults on Wall Street but now spends his time lecturing and directing the AMS Department’s master’s degree program in financial mathematics. “The demand leveled off during the economic crisis, but recently it started to pick up again, and we get lots of calls now from hedge funds and asset managers.”<\/p>\n

Callouts:<\/p>\n

“We aim to develop it to the point that a blind person can use it to quickly learn the difference between, say, a box of Cheerios and a box of Frosted Flakes.”
\n-Ralph Etienne-Cummings, Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering<\/p>\n

“By understanding the fluid mechanical environment, we can start to think about ways of interfering with the process, thereby reducing the chance that a tumor will metastasize.”
\n-Konstantinos Konstantopoulos<\/p>\n

“One of the positive outcomes of the financial crisis is that reliable financial engineering models have become more important than ever.”
\n-Tim Leung<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Engineers are moving into a host of new fields…Meet three Whiting School Faculty at the Forefront<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[28],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1106","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-features","issue-spring-2011"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"\nEngineering in Surprising Places - JHU Engineering Magazine<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/engineering.jhu.edu\/magazine-archive\/2011\/05\/engineering-surprising-places\/\" \/>\n<link rel=\"next\" href=\"https:\/\/engineering.jhu.edu\/magazine-archive\/2011\/05\/engineering-surprising-places\/2\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Engineering in Surprising Places - 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